New remarks on early medieval hoards of iron implements and weapons more

Fruhgeschichtliche Zentralorte in Mitteleuropa Habelt-Verlag • Bonn Studien zur Archaologie Europas Band 14 herausgegeben von Joachim Henning, Achim Leube und Felix Biermann Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH • Bonn 2011 Friihgeschichtliche Zentralorte in Mitteleuropa Internationale Konferenz und Kolleg der Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung zum 50. Jahrestag des Beginns archaologischer Ausgrabungen in Pohansko bei Bf eclav, 5.-9.10.2009, Bf eclav, Tschechische Republik herausgegeben von Jin Machacek Simon Ungerman Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH • Bonn 2011 Gedruckt mit Unterstiitzung der Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung, der Grantagentur der Tschechischen Republik, Projekt Nr. 404/09/J014 und dem Forschungsvorhaben der Masaryk-Universitat, Nr. MUNI/4/0929/20 Umschlag: Bfeclav-Pohansko, Luftbild. (Foto: Martin Gojda) ISBN 978-3-7749-3730-7 Ein Titeldatensatz ist bei der Deutschen Bibliothek erhaltlich. (http://www.ddb .de) Copyright 2011 by Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn New Remarks on Early Medieval Hoards of Iron Implements and Weapons Florin Curta Abstract Early medieval hoards of iron implements and weapons have been interpreted as an expression of conspicuous consumption, possibly related to forms of elite competi- tion known to anthropologists as "potlatch." However, axe-shaped ingots—of which quite a few appear in hoards as well—appear to have served as payments in a rela- tively elaborate system of tribute collection. Through the analysis of 96 hoards so far published with sufficient de- tail for type recognition, it is possible to understand the "grammar" behind the composition of hoards in Moravia, which may have also been the result of tribute collection. A practice initiated in the Late Avar period was probably associated in the ninth century with the redistributive function of central places such as Pohansko, Mikulcice, or Stare Mesto. Keywords: Bulgaria; Moravia; hoard; iron ingots; trade; tribute payments; correspondence analysis. Bofivoj Dostal may have been particularly proud of the re- sults of the 1975 excavations in the northeastern, so-called Tree nursery ("Lesni skolka") part of the large hillfort at Pohansko near Bfeclav, right by the fort rampart. Despite the fact that the area excavated in that year was consider- ably smaller than that covered during the 1974 campaign, he had much to show to the participants in the Third Con- gress on Slavic Archaeology, which took place in 1975 in Bratislava (Dostal 1977-1978, 103; Machacek 2002, 10; 2007, 46, fig. 16). When visiting the site in September of that same year, they were shown, among other things, a newly excavated sunken-floored building (feature 10) with a stone oven in the southern corner. The feature had been found underneath the debris from the destruction of the neighboring fort rampart and its filling had produced animal bones, including a complete skeleton of a cat and fragments of wheel-made pottery. However, the great- est surprise was a large, tall pot with combed decoration found almost intact by the oven's gate. Inside the pot was a collection of iron implements which Dostal promptly called "deposit" ("depot"): a chisel, a hammer, two keys, a knife, two scraping tools, iron mounts and rings and a great number of fragments of unidentified objects looking suspiciously as scrap metal. To Dostal, the most important items in the collection were the two mounts, one of them with analogies in Mikulcice, Pobedim and Stare Zamky presumably dated to the second quarter of the ninth cen- tury. He therefore dated to that same period not only the entire assemblage, but also the sunken-floored building in which it had been found1. Given that, after being aban- 1 In doing so, Dostal's line of reasoning may have been based on the traditional dating of the so-called Blatnica-Mikulcice group of finds doned, the building had been covered with debris from the destruction of the nearby rampart, Dostal used stratigraphy to argue that the hillfort in Pohansko existed already in the early ninth century and suffered a massive destruction at some point during the middle decade of that century (Dostal 1977-1978,119,130). Dostal paid comparatively less attention to the nature of his "deposit,"which he in- terpreted as a collection of recyclable metal in the hands of the resident smith. This was not the first hoard of iron implements found in Pohansko to be associated with iron- working, and its treatment by Dostal dovetails with the current interpretation of the entire Nursery sector of the hillfort as an industrial quarter (Machacek - Gregorova - Hlozek - Hosek 2007)2. Despite the absence of any tools or traces of ironworking from the feature's floor or oven Dostal believed the hoard from feature 10 excavated in the Nursery sector to belong to a group of ninth-century assemblages illustrating blacksmithing in Great Moravia (Dostal 1977-1978, 114). The Pohansko hoard was thus regarded as "utilitarian," in sharp contradiction with the idea of "ritual hoards" advanced in the late 1960s by Boris Novotny (Novotny 1969; Beranova 1984,16; Bartoskova 1986,125). However, the Pohansko "deposit" is different from most other assemblages of tools found in archaeo- logical contexts clearly pointing to ironworking, such as those from features 1 and 5 excavated in 1976 in Stare Mesto - U Vita (Galuska 1992): except the two scraping tools, there are no analogies in Stare Mesto for any of the artifacts found in the Pohansko assemblage. Moreover, no other hoard in Moravia is known so far to have been found in a ceramic container, a feature otherwise typical for contemporary hoards of iron implements and weap- ons found in Bulgaria (Montana: Aleksandrov 1987, 79; Stambolovo: Stanchev 1985). Ever since 1975, the number of hoards of iron implements and weapons has increased considerably, in Moravia to the first half of the ninth century (Bialekova 1979; 1980). The two mounts found in the Pohansko hoard were most likely believed to be of that group, and as a consequence used for the dating of the hoard, feature, rampart, and ultimately stronghold. It goes without saying that, although the two mounts may well be of an earlier date, they are not necessarily the latest artifacts in the assemblage. In other words, they could have been old artifacts added to a collection of items of a much more recent date. At any rate, they cannot in any way be used to date the feature in which the hoard was found, except as a terminus post quern. Their relation to the dating of the rampart, as understood by Dostal, is also tenuous. Recent dendrochronologi- cal studies have demonstrated that the rampart was built in the late ninth century (Machacek - Dresler - Rybnicek, in press). 2 Two other hoards containing axe-shaped bars are known from a feature (no. 17) of the extra-mural settlement on the northeastern side of the hillfort, and from another (no. 2) underneath the rampart. A third hoard is known from a feature (no. 14) of the extra-mural settlement to the southwest from the hillfort. The hoard found in a pot in 1975 is therefore the only one found within the hillfort prop- erly speaking. 309 Florin Curta and the neighboring regions of Slovakia, Bohemia, and Poland, as well as in the northwestern and northeastern Balkans and in Romania. With the rapid increase in the number of finds came also a multiplication of the expla- nations offered for the burial of such collections of tools and weapons. Some, most likely under the influence of "economic" explanations offered for coin hoards, regard hoards of iron implements and weapons as "savings" stored for reasons of precaution in case of theft or war (Beranova 1984, 16; Henning 1989, 88; for "economic" explanations of coin hoards, see Suchodolski 2004,109)3. Hoards found in Moravia have commonly been associ- ated with Magyar attacks, those found in Romania and Bulgaria with Pecheneg raids (Nekuda 1991, 128-129, 132; Comsa - Constantinescu 1969, 434; Teodor 1985, 65; Atanasov 2000, 201-202), despite the fact that the hoarding phenomenon appears to have begun long before the first Magyar or Pecheneg raids known from written sources, and continued long after that. Moreover, that so many hoards of iron implements from Moravia have been found within fortified sites encouraged others to advance the idea that such sites were centers of agricul- tural production similar to the Herrenhofe known from Carolingian Europe (Staria 1985, 176). Others maintain that collections of intact tools are to be regarded as prop- erty of either extended families or village communities (Olteanu 1974, 53-54; 1983, 64-65; Teodor 1981, 46; 1983, 123; Bartoskova 1986, 125; Atanasov 2000, 202; Henning 2000, 80). Neither one of those theories can however explain the peculiar combination of agricultural and woodworking tools, weapons, and horse gear which is typical for both Moravian and Bulgarian hoards. By contrast, "utilitarian" explanations such as that offered by Borivoj Dostal are predicated upon the idea of fortified sites being centers of industrial production, despite the fact that metallographic analyses of various items found in Moravian hoards have shown that those were collec- tions of implements manufactured separately, most likely in different locations (Pleiner 1967, 96-97). Moreover, there seems to be no correlation between the distribution of hoards of iron implements and weapons and that of iron ore resources within the central and eastern parts of the European continent (Pleiner 1967, 103; Curta 1997, 214). A somewhat different explanation was therefore advanced recently. Some hoards found in Moravia and in Poland contain axe-shaped ingots, which have been interpreted as "currency bars" orpremonetary exchange tokens (Pleiner 1961; 1989; Tirpakova - Bialekova - Vlkolinska 1989, 443; Bialekova 1990; 2000; Kucerovska 1996; Salkovsky 1999; Zag6rska-Telega-Bochniak2001; Beres 2002; Ko- towicz 2002). As a consequence, some have begun to link Moravian hoards to trade along the Morava River, which is otherwise mentioned in the written sources (Polacek 2007, 501). According to such views, local peasants did not produce the agricultural or woodcarving tools they 3 Some have even embraced the idea of hoards being buried because of prolonged military and political confrontation: a war lasted for a relatively long period of time, which in turn encouraged the burial of more than one hoard (Bartoskova 1986, 125; Pleterski 1987, 290). needed; instead, they procured them from itinerant mer- chants. Hoards of iron implements and weapons are there- fore regarded as the property of those merchants (Cilinska 1984, 167; Turcan 1996,245). Leaving aside the fact that hoards of iron implements have also been found in sig- nificant numbers in areas (such as Bulgaria) from which axe-shaped ingots or any other form of premonetary tokens are completely absent, the recent emphasis on a commercial explanation for the peculiar phenomenon of the hoarding of iron implements and weapons notably as- sumes the existence in Great Moravia of a market-based model of exchange. To be sure, the Raffelstetten inquest into the tolls paid along the upper Danube shows that in 905, if not earlier, merchants came with Bavarian salt to the "market of the Moravians" and suggests that the Moravians offered instead wax, cattle, horses, and slaves (MGH Capit, 250-252; Tfestik 1973; McCormick 2001, 604-605). But so far no finds of Carolingian pennies are known from Moravia and the location of the "market of the Moravians," if indeed this was a specific location at all, remains unknown (Polacek 2007, 500-501). Whether or not axe-shaped ingots were used as "currency bars," they certainly did not participate in the trade mentioned in the Raffelstetten inquest, for they have not been found outside a restricted region in Moravia and southern Po- land4. The bones of mules found in Pohansko, Mikulcice, and Kuty have rightly been interpreted as evidence of caravans most likely of merchants from across the Alps. However, axe-shaped ingots found on two of the same sites (Pohansko and Mikulcice) are currently regarded as means of payment inside Moravia's commercial net- work, in other words as participating only in domestic trade (Machacek 2007, 341, 343)5. Moreover, if axe-shaped ingots are to be regarded as an indication of trade within Moravia, it is somewhat surpris- ing to learn that the largest number of specimens (4,212 in all) is known from one single hoard from Krakow, while the major centers in the heartland of Great Moravia pro- duced comparatively smaller numbers of specimens (350 in Mikulcice, 170 inUherske Hradiste, 115 in Pohansko; Bialekova 1990,105). While all three types of Darina Bi- alekova's classification of axe-shaped ingots are known from Moravia, Slovakia, Little Poland and, sporadically, Bohemia and Hungary, finds of her type IIIB are known only from Little Poland. This suggests a much more local- ized production and use (whatever that may have been) than assumed by those who regard such ingots as instru- ments of exchange for the domestic trade inside Great Moravia. Such a suggestion is further confirmed by a more detailed examination of tools and weapons found 4 To be sure, axe-shaped ingots very similar to those found in Mora- via (Bialekova's type IIIB) appear in Norway, where such artifacts are known since Roman times. There is so far no demonstrated rela- tion between the Scandinavian axe-shaped ingots and those found in Moravia or southern Poland (Bialekova 1990, 104). 5 There are two hoards of axe-shaped ingots known from Pohansko, both from the satellite settlement ("bailey") to the northeast from the fortified site (Dostal 1975, 213, 216; 1983, 182-186). No less than 17 hoards of axe-shaped ingots are known from Pobedim in Slovakia, with five more from satellite villages (Bialekova 1990, 106). 310 New Remarks on Early Medieval Hoards of Iron Implements and Weapons in hoards (for their typology, see Bartoskova 1986; Hen- ning 1987; Iotov 2004). Although pruning knives such as that from the Babice hoard (Henning's class Gib) are also known from Romanian, Bulgarian, Serbian, or Slovenian hoards, there are no analogies for the three pruning knives from Moravsky Jan in any of the other hoards considered in this paper (Tab. 1). Henning's class Gib Henning's class G2b Babice Moravsky Jan Garbovat Gorna Vrabcha Jelica Zidani gaber Tab. 1. Pruning knives from hoards of iron implements and weapons. Similarly, while most types of plowshares known from Moravian hoards appear in other hoards as well, Kras- nov's class IA2 is only known from Ivanovice (Tab. 2). Even more compelling is the evidence of axes and stir- rups (Tab. 3, 4). Axes typical for Moravian hoards (Bartoskova's classes IIAa, IIIA, IVAa, IVAc, IVB, IVCa, and IVCb) have not been found in any non-Moravian hoard. Similarly, the stirrups found in the Moravian hoards of Brankovice, Gajary II, Ivanovice, Moravsky Jan, and Mikulcice I (Bartoskova's classes IB, IIA, and IIB) have cm in diameter) than those from Silesia (which tend to measure between 5 and 7 cm in diameter; Jaworski 2005, 366). Had implements and weapons found in hoards been acquired through trade, there would be a much more uni- form distribution of types across the vast area in East Cen- tral and Southeastern Europe in which hoards were found. That that is not the case results also from the conspicuous absence from hoard collections of such high-status weap- ons as Carolingian swords and winged lance heads, which are known to have been obtained through trade or some other form of exchange and which are otherwise well rep- resented in the archaeological record of Moravia, Poland, Slovenia, and Croatia (Jelovina 1986; Vignatiova 1993; Pitesa 2002; Sekelj Ivancan 2004; Kosta 2005; Koufil 2005; Kurasihski 2005). What then is the meaning of the hoards of iron imple- ments and weapons? Boris Novotny first noted the unu- sual circumstances in which some Moravian hoards had been deposited. Mikulcice I, for example was found in 1961 under the apse of the church no. 8. Next to the apse of church no. 2 on that same site was a hoard of axe- shaped ingots (Kucerovska 1989, 23-24, fig. if. This strongly suggests a votive deposition, given that, at least in the former case, the owner of the hoard obviously had no intention to retrieve it at a later time. In two other cases (Moravsky Jan and Nartski Novak), hoards were buried on river banks, presumably in swampy areas diffi- cult to access, in an attempt to secure a safe location for what was most likely perceived to be valuable property. This conclusion is further substantiated by a few cases in which there is clear evidence that the constitutive parts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 A 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 2 1 1 1 3 1 B 1 2 1 1 C 1 1 2 D 1 1 1 E 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 F 1 1 1 2 G 1 1 H 1 Tab. 2. Plowshares from hoards of iron implements and weapons. Hoards: 1 - Babice nad Svitavou; 2 - Bititsa; 3 - Bran- kovice; 4 - Dolishte; 5 - Fonyod; 6 - Gajary III; 7 - Glufishevo; 8 - Ivanovice; 9 - Kuty II; 10- Kholopy Gorodok; 11 -Maiaki; 12 - Okorsh; 13 -Mikulcice I; 14 - Mohdcs; 15 - Moravsky Jan; 16 - Pliska I; 17 - Pliska II; 18 - Preslav III; 19 - Pfitluky; 20 - Sebenje; 21 - Sklabiha; 22 - Smolnice; 23 - Svepravice; 24 - Ruino II; 25 - Sredishte I; 26 - Sredishte II; 27 - Szepes Puszta; 28 - Troianov most II; 29 - Vrsac I; 30 - Vrsatecke Podhradie; 31 - Zabokreky I; 32 - Zabokreky II; 33 - Zddiel. Classification of plowshares (after Krasnov 1987): A - IB2; B - IVB1; C - IB3; D - IB2; E - IB4; F-IE1;G- IA3; H - IA2. no analogies in any other hoard. Scythes of Henning's class 16, spurs of Iotov's class 3B, axe-shaped ingots, and querns are known only from Moravian hoards. "Silesian" pans appear in Moravian (Gajary II and III, Ivanovice, Krumvif, Kuty I), but also Bohemian (Prachov) and Si- lesian (Trepcza I) hoards. However, the pans found in Moravia are considerably larger (some measuring 20 6 Both hoard and individual finds of axe-shaped ingots in Mikulcice cluster in and around churches, especially no. 2 by the western gate and no. 5 by the northeastern gate of the acropolis (Kucerovska 1989, 23-53; Polacek 2007, 516, fig. 12) 311 Florin Curta 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 A 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 B 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 3 2 1 c 1 3 1 3 2 1 D 1 2 1 1 1 E 1 1 1 3 F 1 1 1 1 G 1 1 1 H 1 1 I 2 2 J 1 1 K 1 1 L 1 1 M 1 N 1 O 1 Tab. 3. (Battle) axes from hoards of iron implements and weapons. Hoards: 1 - Babice nad Svitavou; 2 - Bdrlogu; 3 - Bititsa; 4 - Brankovice; 5 - Gajary II; 6 - Gajary III; 7 - Ivanovice; 8 - Jelica; 9 - Kholopy Gorodok; 10 - Kra- kow-Kurdanow; 11 - Kuty III; 12-Lipnik; 13-Maiaki; 14-Mikulcice I; 15-Mohdcs; 16-Moravsky Jan; 17-Mu- tenice; 18 - Nartski Novaki; 19 - Pfitluky; 20 - Radovanu; 21 - Rastoaca; 22 - Semice; 23 - Sieu; 24 - Sredishte II; 25 - Sklabiha; 26 - Stambolovo; 27 - Szepes Puszta; 28- Car Asen; 29- Trepczal; 30- Troianov most II; 31 - Vrsac I; 32 - Vrsac II; 33 - Vrsatecke Podhradie; 34 - Zabokreky II; 35 - Zitavskd Ton. Classification of (battle) axes (after Bartoskovd 1986): A - IIAa; B - 1Mb; C - IIB; D - IVAb; E-IVAa; F- IIMa; G-IMd; H - IlICa; I - IA; J - IVAc; K-IVCa; L-IIMb; M-IVB; N-IVCb; O-IIIA. IA a IB IIA IIB Brankovice 2 1 1 Bude§ti 1 Gajary II 1 1 1 Ivanovice 2 Moravsky Jan 1 Mikulcice I 1 Tab. 4: Stirrups from hoards of iron implements and weapons (Bartoskovd's classification). of the hoard were carefully wrapped in a textile bag be- fore deposition (Bititsa and Jelica). One is reminded that over 4,000 axe-shaped ingots weighing altogether more than four tons, which were found in a hoard in Krakow were all arranged in bundles, each of them with sever- al to more than a dozen specimens (Zaitz 1981; 1988). This specific arrangement strongly suggests that bundles were of comparable, if not always equal value and that they represented equivalent payments. The size, weight, and place of deposition of this unusual hoard have led some to the conclusion that, instead of premonetary to- kens, the axe-shaped ingots served as tribute payments in a developed fiscal system (Buko 2008, 94, n. 36). In the absence of axe-shaped ingots, shuttle-like iron ar- tifacts with sharpened ends may have well served the same purpose (Jaworski 2005, 365). Could then hoards of iron implements and weapons be in- terpreted in the same way? I have long advanced the idea that iron may have been chosen as an important means for expressing social status and wealth and explained the hoarding phenomenon as a form of conspicuous con- sumption known in anthropology as potlatch. Competi- tive accumulation and deposition of iron implements and weapons in hoards may have therefore served as "tourna- ments of value" (Curta 1997, 215, 251). Such a conclu- sion was based on the statistical analysis of 92 hoards, only a few of which had been published in a complete and adequate way. Given the relatively large number of finds published in the meantime, it is worth verifying the results of the statistical analysis in the light of the new data. The appendix to this paper includes 96 hoards for which the published information is sufficiently detailed for the recognition of types. Eliminated from analysis were thus a number of hoards from Bohemia (Knezmost and List'any: Bartoskova 1986, 20, 25), Silesia (Kylesovice: Bartoskova 1986, 23), Bulgaria (Pliska: Antonova - Damianov 1969; Balabanov 1985, 22), and Romania (Rapa: Dumitra§cu 1978, 69; Cosna: Andronic 2005, 417). In his book on Southeastern Europe between Antiquity and the Mid- dle Ages, Joachim Henning refers to a number of other hoards from Bulgaria (Aleksandrovo, Asenovec, Boi- adzhik, Crancha, Dabraveno, Donchevo, Iantra, Ka- ranovo, Provadiia, Rumaniia, Stoil Voivoda, Tutrakanci, and Vlashko Selo), Slovakia (Palanka), and Hungary (Poloske), each one of which has one or more agricul- tural implements. However, it remains unclear whether the description of those hoards is to be trusted at all as comprehensive (Henning 1987, 114, 116, 120-122, 128-129, 139, 141, 143, 145, 152, 154). This is also true for three more hoards from Pliska published later (Hen- ning 2000, 80-83). Some hoards were excluded because they each contain only one kind of artifacts. This is the 312 Fig. 1. The distribution of hoards of iron implements and weapons in East Central and Southeastern Europe. Numbers refer to the Appendix. Larger symbols show multiple assemblages found on the same site. case of thirteen hoards of axe-shaped ingots; two hoards of so-called "Silesian pans" from Poland (Mysliborz and Zlotoryja: Kurtz 1936); and individual hoards of shuttle-like artifacts (Gilow: Jaworski 2005, 365), scrap- ing tools (Stare Mesto: Galuska 1992, 135-140), sickles (Kolochin: Symonovich 1963, 133), scythes (Bfeznice: Bartoskova 1986, 11), spade irons (Pliska; Shkorpil 1905, 311, pi. 49: 1-4), or lance heads (Krzyzna Gora and Gilow: Jaworski 2005, 360, 364), respectively. Fi- nally, a number of hoards have been left aside because detailed information is available about some of their components, but not about the others (Ada Ciganlija: Todorovic - Kondic - Birtasevic 1956, 86, 87, fig. 22- 24; Gamzigrad: Lalovic 1985; Montana: Aleksandrov 1977, 282-285; Razgrad: Ivanov - Stoianov 1985, 27, fig. 57-61; Voivoda: Damianov 1976, 19-23). Despite so many eliminations, the actual number of hoards in- cluded in analysis increased by almost a third. However, even with 96 (instead of just 66) assemblages, the end result of the correspondence analysis remains the same (Fig. 3; cf. Curta 1997, 229, fig. 5). Instead of the expected "horseshoe" distribution of units of analysis, there is a large cloud around the intersection of the two axes, an indication that, despite differences, there is great similarity between hoards of iron implements and weapons, including those clearly dated much later7. One 7 Eighteen coins struck for Emperor John Tzimiskes (969-976) were found with other iron implements and weapons in the Chelopech hoard. Similarly, there were eleven anonymous folles struck for eleventh-century Byzantine emperors (the latest for Michael VII. 1071-1078) in the Plopu hoard. 313 Florin Curta Fig. 2. The distribution of hoards of iron implements and weapons in Eastern Europe. Numbers refer to the Appendix. can even recognize some familiar outliers, especially Gajary I, Krumvif, and Moravsky Jan. A quick glimpse at the scattergram showing the relationships between hoards and artifact types (Fig. 4) reveals that responsible for all three outliers may be the presence of Avar-age belt fit- tings. The Moravsky Jan hoard contains one strap end of Zabo- jnik's class 91 (Bartoskova 1986, 35, fig. 12: 7), two strap ends of Zabojnik's class 251 (Bartoskova 1986, 35, fig. 12: 6, 8), and a fragment of a belt mount of Zabo- jnik's class 211 (Bartoskova 1986, 35, fig. 12: 10). Class 91 is most typical for the chronological phase known as Late Avar II (ca. 720 to ca. 760), but the latest is class 211, which could be dated to Late Avar III (ca. 760 to ca. 820; Zabojnik 1991; for the calibrated chronology of the Avar age, see Stadler 2008, 58-59). Furthermore, 314 New Remarks on Early Medieval Hoards of Iron Implements and Weapons ■6.0 J_L o GAJ1 ■2.0 J_L ■2.0 ■i.u O ST^RM POB ^4.0 Fig. 3. Correspondence analysis of 96 hoards of iron implements and weapons. Hoards: BAB - Babice nad Svitavou; BAR - Bdrlogu; BIT-Bititsa; BOZH-Bozhurovo; BRAN - Brankovice; BREST - Brestiv; BUD - Budesti; CAR - Car Asen; CEB - Cebovce; CHEL - Chelopech; CUR - Curcani; DALG - Ddlgopol; DEV- Devic; DOL - Dolishte; DRAG - Dragosloveni; FON - Fonyod; GAJ1 - Gajary I; GAJ2 - Gajary II; GAJ3 - Gajary III; GARB - Gdrbovat; GIL - Gi- low; GL UF - Glufishevo; GOR - Gorna Vrabcha; IVAN - Ivanovice; JEL - Jelica; KHOL - Kholopy Gorodok; KIRZH - Kirzhemany; KOR - Krakow-Kurdwanow; KRUM - Krumvif; KUT1 - Kuty I; KUT2 - Kuty II; KUT3 - Kuty III; LETY - Lety u Dobrichovic; LIP - Lipnik; MAI - Maiaki; MIK1 - Mikulcice I; MIK2 - Mikulcice II; MOH - Mohdcs; MON-Montana; MOR -MoravskyJdn; MUT-Mutenice; NAR-Nartski Novaki; NIZH-Nizhne Borki; OBR - Obre- jita; OKO - Okorsh; OSL - Oslavany; PLI1 - Pliska I; PLI2 - Pliska II; PLO- Plopu; PLU- Pluznd; POB - Pobedim; POH - Pohansko; POP - Poprusanovo; PRE1 - Preslav I; PRE2 - Preslav II; PRE3 - Preslav III; PRIT - Pfitluky; RAD - Radovanu; RAJ1 - RajhradI; RAJ2 - RajhradII; RAS - Rdstoaca; RAZ - Razlog; R UI1 - Ruino I; R UI2 - Ruino 2; SEB - Sebenje; SEM- Semice; SIEU-Sieu; SKL - Sklabiha; SMO - Smolnice; SRE1 - Sredishte I; SRE2 - Sredishte II; STAM- Stambolovo; STAR - Star a Zagora; STARM'— Stare Mesto; STARZ - Stare Zdmky; STR - Strezhevo; SVE - Svepravice; SZE - Szepes Puszta; TIN- Tinje; TRE1 - Trepcza I; TRE2 - Trepcza II; TROl - Troianov most I; TR02 - Troianov most II; TVA - Tvaroznd Lhota; VER - Verkhnyia Vizhnytsia; VRS1 - VrsacI; VRS2 - VrsacII; VRS3 - Vrsac III; VRSA - Vrsatecke Podhradie; ZAB1 - Zabokreky I; ZAB2 - Zabokreky II; ZAD - Zddiel; ZID - Zidani gaber; ZIT - Zitavskd Ton; ZLA - Zlatar. the belt mount from Krumvif is decorated with griffins and may thus have belonged to one of Zabojnik's classes 239-241, all of which could equally be dated to Late Avar II. A slightly later date may also be advanced for the Brankovice and Mikulcice I hoards on the basis of the presence in all those assemblages of horse bits with S-shaped ends (Stadler's class 360), analogies for which appear especially in Late Avar-age cemeteries in Slova- kia (Holiare, Zitavska Ton, Hranicna pri Hornade, and Sebastovce; Stadler 2005). Reminiscent of Late Avar-age depositional practices is also the presence of a bronze coin struck for Emperor Constantine I (306/7-337) in the Moravsky Jan hoard (Ondrouch 1964, 136) and of a second- or third-century Roman fibula {Kniefibel) in the Gajary I hoard (for the deposition of Roman fibulae in Late Avar-age burials, see Garam 2003, 96)8. To judge from the existing evidence, Moravsky Jan, Gajary I, and Krumvif are so far the earliest hoard assem- blages among all those considered in this paper. Moravsky Jan and Krumvif also stand out in the correspondence 8 In Slovakia, bronze coins struck for Constantine I are known only from eighth-century graves in such typically Avar-age cemeteries as Cifer, Cataj, Holiare, Komarno, and Sturovo (Zabojnik 2009). For finds of Roman Kniefibeln in Avar-age cemeteries in Slovakia, see Pastor 1961, 378, 360, fig. 151; Cilinska 1964, 374. 315 Florin Curta Fig. 4. Correspondence analysis of 96 hoards of iron implements and weapons in relation to 107 artifact types. For hoards, see Fig. 3. Artifact types: ADZ - adze; ANV- anvil; ARR-BA - arrow head, barbed; AXE2C - axe (Iotov's class 2C); AXE3C - axe, fan-shaped (Iotov's class 3C); AXE8B - axe (Iotov's class 8B); AXEIA - axe (Bartoskova's class IA); AXEIIAa - axe (Bartoskova's class IIAa); AXEIIAb - axe (Bartoskova's class IIAb); AXEIIAc - axe (Bartoskova's class IIAc); AXEIIAd- axe (Bartoskova's class IIAd); AXEIIB - axe (Bartoskova's class IIB); AXEIIIAa - axe (Bartoskova's class IIIAa); AXEIIIAb - axe (Bartoskova's class IIIAb); AXEIIIAc - axe (Bartoskova's class IIIAc); AXEIIIB - axe (Bartoskova's class IIIB); AXEIIICa - axe (Bartoskova's class IlICa); AXEIIICb - axe (Bartoskova's class IHCb); AXE- IVAa - axe (Bartoskova's class IVAa); AXEIVAb - axe (Bartoskova's class IVAb); AXEIVAc - axe (Bartoskova's class IVAc); AXEIVCa - axe (Bartoskova's class IVCa); BELL-jingling bell; BELTM- belt mount; BILLGla-pruning knife (Henning's class Gla); BILLGlb - pruning knife (Henning's class Gib); BILLG4a - pruning knife (Henning's class G4a); BILLG5-pruning knife (Henning's class G5); BIT-R - bridle bit with straight cheek-pieces; BITS-bridle bit with S-shaped cheek pieces; BIT-2 - bridle bit (Iotov's class 2); BUCK-buckle; BUCK-F-bucketfittings; BUCK-H-bucket handle; BUCK-HO - bucket hoops; BUCKET - bucket; CATQ4 - cattle bell (Henning's class Q4); CHA - chain; CHI- chisel; COULE1 -coulter (Henning's class El); COULE2 - coulter (Henning's class E2); COULE3 - coulter (Henning's class E3); CRA - cramp; FILE-file; FLINTS-flint steel; HAMM-hammer; HILT-hilt guard; HOE-drag hoe; HOO - hook; ING - ingot; ING-A - axe-shaped ingot; KET - kettle; KEY - key; KNI - knife; LAN1A - lance head (Iotov's class 1A); LAN2 - lance head (Iotov's class 2); LAN3 - lance head (Iotov's class 3); LAN4 - lance head (Iotov's class 4); MATTK5 - mattock (Henning's class K5); MATTK9 - mattock (Henning's class K9); MATTK10 - mattock (Henning's class K10); MATTK11 - mattock (Henning's class Kll); MATTK15 - mattock (Henning's class K15); MATTK23 - mat- tock (Henning's class K23); OGRIB- ogribka; PAN - "Silesian" pan; PICKL1 -pickaxe (Henning's class LI); PLA - plane; PLOWA1 -plowshare (Henning's class Al); PLOWA3-plowshare (Henning's class A3); PLOWA4-plowshare (Henning's class A4); PLOWIA1 - plowshare (Krasnov's class IA1); PLOWIA3 - plowshare (Krasnov's class IA3); PLOWIB2 - plow share (Krasnov's class IB2); PLOWIB3 - plow share (Krasnov's class IB3); PLOWIB4 - plowshare (Krasnov's class IB4); PLOWIIB2 - plowshare (Krasnov's class IIB2); PLOWIVB1 -plowshare (Krasnov's class IVB1); PLOWIVB3 - plowshare (Krasnov's class IVB3); PLOWIVB4 - plowshare (Krasnov's class IVB4); PLOWSOCK - share, socketed; PLOWTA - share, tanged; QUE - quern; RIN- ring; SAX - sax; SCIS- scissors; SCRP1 - scraping tool (Henning's class PI); SCRP2 - scraping tool (Henning's class P2); SCRP3 - scraping tool (Henning's class P3); SCYI5 - scythe (Henning's class 15); SCYI6 - scythe (Henning's class 16); SHUT-shuttle-like artifact; SICKH1 - sickle (Henning's class HI); SICKH2 - sickle (Henning's class H2); SICKH4 - sickle (Henning's class H4); SICKH5 - sickle (Henning's class H5); SICKH6 - sickle (Henning's class H6); SPAF2 - spade frame (Henning's class F2); SPI - spike; SPU4B - spurs (Iotov's class 4B); STIR3A - stirrup (Iotov's class 3A); STIR8A - stirrup (Iotov's class 8A); STIRIIA - stirrup (Bartoskova's class IIA); STIRIIB - stirrup (Bartoskova's class IIB); SWO - double-edge sword; TONG - tongs; WHET-whetstone; WIMB -wimble. 316 New Remarks on Early Medieval Hoards of Iron Implements and Weapons Units 11 MOR B BAB B KRUM c POH 1.5 ▲ POB A STAM o BRAN o MVA- o MIK2 -o- OPRi KUT3 o KUT2 o CAJ2 o o GAJ*<UT1 ^5 MIK1 o ZIT o LIP -A-J- 2.0 |1 ZAB1 =0.5 =1.0 O l?AJ1 A TVA STAZ =2.0 Fig. 5. Correspondence analysis of 25 Moravian hoards of iron implements and weapons. For site name abbreviations, see Fig. 3. analysis of 25 Moravian hoards (the map distribution of which is shown in Figure 1), but this time in the vicinity of such hoards as Babice, Pohansko, and Mikulcice II and at the opposite end of the parabola from such other hoards as Pobedim, Stare Mesto, Mikulcice I, and Zabokreky I (Fig. 5). The scattergram of the same analysis showing the rela- tions between hoards and broadly defined artifact cat- egories reveals that, besides belt accessories hoards from the former group have also in common pruning knives and hammers, while the latter group is characterized by such things as spurs and ingots. Most notable for both groups of hoards is the absence of agricultural tools, such as plowshares, coulters, sctyhes, or sickles, which are ex- clusively associated with the middle and larger group of hoards. Equally significant, however, is the close prox- imity of the former group to the Pohansko hoard, which Bofivoj Dostal initially believed to be relatively early, as mentioned in the beginning of this paper. The combina- tion of hammer, knife, chisel, and scraping tool, which appears in both the Pohansko and the Mikulcice II hoards suggests woodcarving, not blacksmithing9. Moreover, some have recently reclaimed the scraping tools of Hen- 9 Despite the presence of hammers in those two hoards, as well as of anvils and tongs in the Vrsatecke Podhradie assemblage, no hoards from Moravia, Bohemia or Slovakia have so far produced complete sets of smithing tools (hammers, anvils, and tongs) comparable to those from the Romanian hoards of Barlogu and Dragosloveni. ning's classes Pl-3 for woodcarving and carpentry, in- stead of agricultural activities (Vitlianov 1980; Polacek 2000,306-312). Nonetheless, with a quantitative analysis of the artifact categories considered for correspondence analysis, it becomes clear that the largest number of im- plements in Moravian hoards are agricultural tools, the number of which is more than three times larger than that of weapons and more than five times larger than that of woodcarving tools (Tab. 5). Only in the Mikulcice II hoard is the number of weapons larger than that of agricultural tools, while in Mikulcice I, there are more axe-shaped ingots than either agricultural tools or weapons. Two hoards (Rajhrad I, II) contain only agricultural tools, while no hoards are made up exclu- sively of weapons or woodcarving tools. However, when examining the individual artifact catego- ries, one gets a different picture. A cross-type seriation reveals that a substantial number of artifacts never occur together within one and the same assemblage (Fig. 7). For example, Moravian hoards containing spade irons do not have mattocks, coulters, sickles, or scythes, in sharp contrast to hoards found in other regions, particularly in Bulgaria (Ruino II, Sredishte II, Stara Zagora) and Ser- bia (Vrsac II). Similarly, in Moravia, pruning knives and scythes never appear together, although the combina- tion is well attested in hoards from Bulgaria (Dalgopol, Gorna Vrabcha, Preslav, Stambolovo, and Stara Zagora), Romania (Dragosloveni, Garbovat, and Obrejita), and the western Balkans (Jelica and Zidani gaber). Mutually ex- 317 Florin Curta Units & Types o o BELT o MOR o HA,MM KRUM ■3.0 I_ o BAB o LANCE q POH -1.0 _1 O BIT o o --)B5AN AXE &™k&5™ O O '-MATT KUT2 CHI o INC o rvtuT O POB o STAM GAJ3™T1 o SCIS O ,~, KNIV Qp o BLAD G MIK1 Q O COUL ZAB2 o TVA u PLA 1.0 _qJ_ ZAB1 QUE 2.0 _|1 -■2.0 Fig. 6. Correspondence analysis of 25 Moravian hoards of iron implements and weapons in relation to 27 constitutive artifact categories. For site abbreviations, see Fig. 3. For artifact category abbreviations, see Fig. 4. elusive are also the so-called "Silesian" pans (Bubenik 1972; 1980) and the shuttle-like or axe-shaped ingots. This may substantiate the idea that the former are unlikely to have been regarded as pre-monetary means of payment in the same way as axe-shaped ingots (Jaworski 2005. 366)10. Although ingots occasionally appear in hoards outside Moravia (Budesti, Vrsac III, and Zidani gaber). the largest number of ingots of iron in the shape of axes have been found within a limited area on both sides of the Northern Carpathian and Sudeten Mountains believed to have been controlled in the ninth century by the (Great) Moravian polity (Dostal 1965; Jaworski 1997; Wachowski 1997; 2000; Marsina 1999; Kamenicky 2002). The cross- type seriation clearly indicates that the largest number of correlations in Moravian hoards are those of shuttle- or axe-shaped ingots. A summary of that seriation, showing only the first three major correlations for the main artifact categories, reveals that the dominant items are the ingots (Tab. 6). Moreover, the most frequent correlations are those between ingots, the majority of the agricultural tools, as well as all woodcarving tools and horse gear. The patterns of associa- tion for coulter, mattock, horse bit, and stirrup are identical, but very different from pruning knife, sword, and lance. 10 This is true even though fragments of "Silesian" pans sometimes appear in hoards folded in such a way as to form rectangular or at least regular packets, which may have served as tokens of exchange (Jaworski 2005, 367). Iron plate used in such a way is known from other hoards as well, e.g., Mikulcice II, Nartski Novaki, or Vrsac III. Of all weapons found in hoards, ingots appear together mostly with axes. The encoded grammar of the Moravian hoards is thus different from that revealed by the analysis of all hoards of iron implements and weapons (Curta 1997, 235-237). Instead of an opposition between warfare and agriculture on one hand, and blacksmithing, on the other hand, in Moravian hoards, the emphasis appears to be laid on the accumulation of valuable iron in the form of ingots. That agricultural implements and woodcarving tools appear together with ingots strongly suggests that the former were also hoarded as iron artifacts and not necessarily because of their function. If, as suggested, hoards of axe-shaped ingots, such as that found in Krakow, represent tribute payments, then hoarding ingots and implements may have also been a way to accumulate value and to take debt or wealth outside the immediate community. That different implements were manufactured in different techniques, perhaps at different times and in different places suggests that the heterogeneous composition of hoards of iron tools and weapons was the result of different payments of tribute by different people at different times. It is perhaps no accident that 16 out of 27 Moravian hoards were found in hillforts, which were centers of power and most certainly operated as tribute collection points and storage centers for accumulated valu- ables which were then redistributed according to mecha- nisms of which we know practically nothing. InPobedim, no less than ten such hoards have so far been found, but only one of them has been properly published (Bialekova 1990, 111-112). By contrast, no hoards have been found 318 New Remarks on Early Medieval Hoards of Iron Implements and Weapons Hoard Agriculture Weapons Horse gear Woodcarving Belt sets "Currency bars" Brankovice 5 1 7 3 1 Ivanovice 4 4 2 2 1 Mikulcice I 19 12 4 10 30 Moravsky Jan 6 3 5 3 11 Gajary II 18 2 4 Babice 2 1 Pntluky 3 1 Zitavska Ton 3 4 Mikulcice II 4 10 2 1 Kuty III 1 2 1 Lipnik 5 3 1 Zabokreky II 20 1 6 10 Gajary III 5 3 1 Pobedim 2 6 1 18 Kuty I 3 1 1 Tvarozna Lhota 5 1 Stare Zamky 3 1 Kuty II 3 1 Gajary I 4 21 Zabokreky I 7 6 Oslavany 6 Rajhrad I 5 Rajhrad II 10 Mutenice 5 1 Pohansko 3 1 Krumvif 1 1 Stare Mesto 14 Total 173 52 30 33 36 84 Tab. 5. Artifact categories represented in 27 Moravian hoards of iron implements and weapons. in any of the settlements in the agricultural hinterland of Pohansko (e.g., Bfeclav - Libiva), which is known to have produced food for the nearby "central place" (Machacek 2009,253; Curta2009,36-37). That inside hillforts, hoards of iron implements were deposited in ceramic containers (Pohansko) or in special pits (Stare Mesto, Stare Zamky) substantiates the idea that such collections of implements and weapons were treated as valuables11. There are eleven fragments of iron plate in the Mikulcice II hoard and another twelve in the Pohansko assemblages. Outside Moravia, the evidence of scrap metal in hoards of iron implements and weapons remains minimal (Krakow-Kurdwanow). In Moravia, fragmentary artifacts are known only from the Mikulcice II (knives and sickle) and Pohansko hoards (knives and keys). Fragments of Moravian axe-shaped in- gots have been found in a hoard of 32 specimens from a smithy in Stare Mesto - U Vita. By contrast, many hoards 11 No special studies have so far been done in that direction, but it is perhaps no accident that the hoards from Brankovice (Moravia) and Sebenje (Slovenia) each consisted of an almost equal number of items (23 and 24, respectively) with a comparable weight (4 kg and 5.976 kg respectively). found outside Moravia contain fragmentary axes (Car Asen, Chelopech, Poprusanovo), scythes (Garbovat, Jelica, Po- prusanovo, Ruino II, and Trepcza), swords (Stambolovo) or scissors (Trepcza). The evidence thus suggests that in Moravia iron plate and fragmentary artifacts could only serve as substitutes for the value stored in whole artifacts or axe-shaped ingots. In other words, there seems to have been no substantial need in ninth-century Moravia for units of account smaller than whole artifacts and ingots. Unlike silver in the Gewichtsgeldwirtschaft of contemporary north- ernEurope (Steuer 1987; Kilger2007), iron in Moravia is therefore unlikely to have served as a medium of exchange {contra: Kucerovska 1980; 1989, Sejbal 1990). Instead, like Maori axes and cloaks, Kwakiutl coppers, and kula armshells and necklaces known from the anthropological literature (Graeber 2001), iron in ninth-century Moravia may have been used symbolically to store value and was thus particularly appropriate for the payment of debts and tribute12. 12 Tribute payments in iron are mentioned in later sources pertaining to Rus' and Bulgaria (Cross - Sherbowitz-Wetzor 1953, 58; Jackson 1990, 66). 319 Florin Curta Input Correlation: 0.0089 Output Correlation: 0.4B72 v. Uariance: 31.0085 b 3 s f s b p 5 C q i 5 m p p C s k 5 C p s k w b fi l a H b b h s H t b l t h i C u fl 1 0 u m C ft I l H F m x t H L C e i i I a r 0 e 1 I p D R e fl E a L 1 C N c u E G V I C fl fl U 1 E I I 0 fi 1 j m n r m L L a Q N L d E s k k l T T K U r S u fi p G c E M t L d l Fi le 1 4 2 shackles 1 4 3 4 1 1 Flint steel 2 2 23 3 ib 2 5 1 1 3 1 1 l sc1sears 3 3 1 24 4 15 2 7 2 a 6 3 1 3 1 1 1 i "Silesian" pan 1 3 3 24 2 14 2 6 2 2 7 6 2 & 1 1 1 i 1 sword or sax 1 2 1 1 5 2 1 B 3 1 2 coulter 3 2 24 3 22 3 2 52 12 2 2 1 1 5 17 4 2 3 7 2 1 5 2 i 1 mattock 1 3 3 27 1 23 4 2 31 11 2 2 1 2 1 2 17 a 2 7 9 2 2 7 3 i quern stone 1 6 11 2 4 44 4 1 2 1 1 4 12 l 2 2 7 2 1 3 2 spur 4 1 10 1 1 4 1 1 1 scythe 3 3 1 4 26 4 42 7 2 36 13 4 2 1 1 1 11 20 4 4 6 9 4 1 4 3 l 10 1 1 plane 1 4 11 2 6 30 4 1 2 1 4 12 1 2 2 7 2 1 3 2 shuttle-like or axe-shaped ingot 6 13 4 4 64 & 3 2 1 2 5 10 5 2 5 9 1 2 7 2 1 pickaxe a 2 Z 30 4 1 1 1 1 12 1 2 2 7 1 1 3 2 sickle 2 3 1 1 4 33 5 4Z 6 6 55 23 6 2 2 2 6 15 17 9 4 9 11 5 2 0 3 l 10 1 23 chain 3 1 1 2 1 1 4 2 2 1 3 bucket handle, mountj or hoop 1 3 1 i 3 28 1 22 3 6 21 10 4 1 1 6 6 8 6 4 3 2 8 3 2 2 11 3 1 2 1 1 axe 3 3 5 28 5 24 6 2 32 12 7 2 1 2 b 24 11 5 14 12 3 3 11 6 2 2 11 4 1 2 1 1 1 stirrup 3 2 27 5 22 4 2 31 9 4 2 1 2 20 6 4 9 11 3 3 11 6 2 2 11 1 2 1 1 horse bit 3 2 27 3 20 5 2 43 9 4 2 1 2 5 16 9 2 5 11 3 3 7 5 2 2 12 3 1 2 1 1 1 chisel 2 1 13 2 2 30 b 1 2 1 1 10 17 3 2 6 10 3 1 3 4 10 2 4 key 3 1 2 28 3 22 4 6 30 10 2 2 2 1 5 15 5 3 4 12 2 2 b 6 2 3 14 3 1 2 1 1 plowshare 1 2 6 2 ib 3 2 37 a 6 2 1 2 2 25 a 4 6 13 4 3 10 & 1 2 11 4 1 2 1 1 uiinble 4 9 2 2 31 4 3 2 1 2 15 6 2 5 11 2 16 5 1 2 11 1 2 1 1 1 knife 1 1 1 5 1 5 4 4 1 1 6 2 2 2 3 3 1 10 2 4 lance head 3 2 24 3 ib 2 5 1 3 4 1 2 2 1 5 3 2 11 3 1 2 1 1 1 iron ring 1 1 11 2 2 30 5 Z 2 1 1 1 1 18 4 5 7 11 4 2 7 4 1 3 3 14 1 2 1 1 1 scraping tool i 4 11 2 2 31 b 3 2 1 2 4 17 6 4 7 10 6 3 10 6 1 10 4 15 3 1 2 1 1 1 arrow 1 3 3 1 1 9 i 1 belt accessories 1 6 1 18 3 5 4 2 1 2 1 5 3 1 5 4 1 10 2 32 1 2 1 1 1 hammer 1 1 3 4 2 1 2 1 5 3 1 4 4 1 10 1 15 3 1 2 1 1 1 jingling bell 1 2 1 2 1 1 4 3 1 2 3 1 2 1 1 pruning knife 1 3 1 2 2 1 1 4 3 1 2 11 2 1 2 1 1 1 tanged share 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 4 3 1 2 11 1 2 1 1 1 mirror 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 4 3 1 2 11 3 2 1 1 1 hook i 2 1 1 2 1 1 4 1 2 11 3 1 2 1 1 spade iron 2 1 1 2 1 1 4 3 1 2 11 3 1 1 1 1 1 Fig. 7. Cross seriation of 37 artifact categories found in Moravian hoards of implements and weapons. Artifact catego- ries: ARR - arrow head; AXE-axe; BELL -jingling bell; BELT- belt accessories; BLLL -pruning knife; BLT- horse bit; BLAD - sword or sax; BUCK-bucket handle, mount, or hoop; CHA - chain; CHLS-chisel; COUL - coulters; FLL -file; HAMM - hammers; HOO - hook; LNG - shuttle-like or axe-shaped ingot; KEY - key; KNLV- knife; LANCE- lance head; MATT-mattock; MLRR - mirror; PAN- "Silesian "pan; PLCK-pickaxe; PLA -plane; PLOW-plowshare; QUE - quern stone; PJNG - iron ring; SCLS- scissors; SCRAP - scraping tool; SCYT- scythe; SHA - shackles; SLCK - sickle; SPAD - spade iron; SPU - spurs; STEE-flint steel; STLR - stirrup; TAN - tanged share; WLM- wimble. To suggest that hoards of iron implements and weapons were the result of tribute collection in no way contradicts the idea of competitive accumulation and deposition of hoards as a form to reinforce social prestige. A practice which most likely originated in Late Avar society, perhaps as a form of surrogate warfare, and which was directly linked to the symbolic representation of power (Curta 1997, 249-250) may have been associated in ninth-cen- tury Moravia with the redistributive functions of central places such as Pohansko, in which elites collected the tribute extracted from the population in the surrounding countryside (Klanica 2005; for central places and tribute collection, see also Barford 2005, 70). The practice (and, perhaps, its connection to tribute collection) was adopted at the same time or somewhat later by elites in Bulgaria (Curta 1997, 226)13. 13 To be sure, no direct evidence exists so far for a ninth-century date of any of hoards found in Bulgaria and southeastern Romania. The only firm chronological markers are the late tenth- or early eleven- th-century coins found in the Chelopech or Pliska hoards (Henning 2000, 80). Nonetheless, a late ninth- or early tenth-century date may be accepted for the lyre-shaped buckles from Chelopech and Mon- Since the various items in hoard assemblages appear to be of different origin, collecting tribute in the form of iron artifacts implies the availability of a relatively large number of such artifacts within the entire territory of Great Moravia, and not only at a limited number of locations. This would in turn suggest that iron artifacts moved quite frequently from one location to another in order for the tribute collection supposedly represented in each hoard to display a random selection of products of different blacksmithing centers. Unfortunately, very few studies have focused on identifying manufacturing "signatures" of various production centers, and only a few artifacts found in hoards have been studied compara- tively. Metalographic analysis of iron implements found in hoards have not moved much beyond recognizing that the iron in question was extracted from ores with a substantial phosphoric composition (Kolchin 1953, 36; Piaskowski 1974, 78; Olteanu - Neagu - §ecleman tana(Harhoiu 1972, 418-420; Revesz 1987, 268-269; Fiedler 1992, 198-199), as well as for the saber hilt guards from Ruino I (Iotov 2008, 330, 333, 336). 320 New Remarks on Early Medieval Hoards of Iron Implements and Weapons Artifact First Second Third pruning knife belt fittings horse bit iron ring/axe spade iron belt fittings horse bit iron ring/pruning knife tanged share belt fittings horse bit iron ring/pruning knife plowshare ingot axe sickle coulter ingot bucket sickle mattock ingot bucket sickle scythe ingot sickle bucket sickle ingot sickle bucket chisel ingot axe sickle plane ingot axe sickle scraping tool ingot sickle belt accessories wimble ingot sickle belt accessories/scraping tool spurs ingot —-—- sickle/spurs horse bit ingot bucket sickle stirrup ingot bucket sickle axe ingot bucket sickle/axe lance bucket knife sickle sword/sax knife sickle axe arrow arrow scythe/knife Tab. 6. Cross-type correlations in 27 Moravian hoards of iron implements and weapons. 1981; specifically for axe-shaped ingots, see Zaitz 1988. 274). This seems to eliminate the possibility that low- carbon steel implements in Great Moravia (including some of those found in hoards) were made of iron from the Male Karpaty or the Slovakian Erzgebirge, as local ores have a comparatively much lower concentration of phosphorus14. However, against this general background, the variety of technologies and procedures employed in the production of iron artifacts appears to be far greater than previously assumed. It has been recently noted, for example, that artifacts from Stare Mesto and Ivanovice were made of iron with more than 0.1 percent nickel en- richment, while in Mikulcice the number of such artifacts is almost equal to that of artifacts of iron with less than 0.1 percent (Machacek - Gregorova - Hlozek - Hosek 2007, 163)15. Unlike phosphorus, the addition of nickel appears to have been deliberate, which raises the possi- bility of identifying specific smiths or smithies by means of a systematic analysis of all iron artifacts, especially of those found in hoards. Unfortunately, no such studies have so far been carried out and no "map" exists yet of the technologies employed for the production of the im- 14 Moreover, the distribution of iron artifacts with whole edge of high- carbon steel is not restricted to hillforts or high-status sites. Rich burials in Moravia often contain artifacts produced with less sophis- ticated techniques (Pleiner 1967, 95). 15 From a technological point of view, the axes found in the Krakow- Kurdwanow hoard appear to have been produced in a way different from that employed for the production of axes from Moravian sites as well as from the procedures in use in Little Poland during the early Midle Ages (Biborski - Stepihski 2001, 84-85; Piaskowski 1986). plements and weapons found in hoards. Even though it is theoretically possible that individual communities paid tribute in iron artifacts, which were not locally produced, studies of this kind may be able not only to identify cent- ers of production, but also to provide clues for how far from such centers could various artifacts have traveled in order to end up in hoard deposits. 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Babice nad Svitavou, near Brno, South Moravia (Czech Republic); found with the metal detector in front of a cave in the valley of the Kftiny Creek; consists of 3 items: 1 axe of Bartoskova's class IIAa (or Iotov's class 1A), 1 plowshare of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IB2), and 1 pruning knife of Henning's class Gib; Galuska 2006. 2. Barlogu, Negrasj commune, Arges. district (Romania); accidental find (1964) next to an early medieval dwelling structure; contains 19 items (only 9 preserved): 1 anvil. 2 axes of Bartoskova's class IIAa (or Iotov's class 1A), 1 axe with asymmetrical blade (Iotov's class 2C), 2 coulters of Henning's class E 1,2 hammers, 1 lance head (perhaps of Iotov's class 4A), 1 mattock of Henning's class K 10. 2 plowshares (one of which is of Krasnov's class IVB4. asymmetrical, and repaired), 1 socketed share, 2 sickles of Henning's class H2, tongs, and 1 wimble; Nania 1969. 3. Bititsa, Sumy region (Ukraine); found in a pit next to a sunken-floored building within the early medieval hillfort; traces of fabric (silk?) on several items; contains 141 items: 1 axe of Bartoskova's class IIB (or Iotov's class IB), 96 glass beads, 3 jingling bells, 1 knife, 1 lance head of Iotov's class 1,26 bronze spiral ornaments, 1 plane, 1 plowshare of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IVB1, asymmetrical). 1 scraping tool of Henning's class P2,2 scythes of Henning's class 15, 8 sickles of Henning's class H2, and 1 whetstone; Sukhobokov - Voznesenskaia - Priimak 1989. 4. Bozhurovo, near Paskalevo, Dob rich district (Bulga- ria); accidental find within the early medieval settlement; contains 19 items: 2 cattle bells of Henning's class Q4. 1 belt buckle, 1 coulter of Henning's class El, 1 spade iron of Henning's class Dl, 1 scraping tool of Henning's class P2, 1 scythe of Henning's class 15, 8 sickles of Henning's class H2, and 4 stirrups of Bartoskova's class IAb (3 of Iotov's class 4A, 1 of Iotov's class 4B); Bob- cheva 1972. 5. Brankovice, near Vyskov, South Moravia (Czech Re- public); accidental find within the early medieval sett- lement; contains 23 items (total weight of 4 kg): 1 axe of Bartoskova's class IVAa, 1 horse bit with S-shaped cheek-pieces, 2 horse bits with straight cheek-pieces, 3 bucket fittings, 4 chain loops, 2 mattocks (1 of Henning's class K10, 1 of Henning's class K23), 2 plowshares of Henning's class Al (1 of Krasnov's class IB2, asymme- trical, the other of Krasnov's class IB3), 2 scraping tools of Henning's class P2, 1 shuttle-like artifact with shar- pened ends, 1 sickle of Henning's class H2, 4 stirrups (2 of Bartoskova's class IAa [or Iotov's class 3A], 1 of Bartoskova's class IB, and 1 of Bartoskova's class IIA). and 1 wimble; Bartoskova 1986, 10-11. 6. Brestiv, Svaliava district, Zakarpats'ka region (Ukrai- ne); accidental find (1935) in a ditch, under a large stone; contains 12 items: 10 scythes of Henning's class 15, and 2 sickles of Henning's class H2; Peniak 1980, 121. 7. Budesti, Cotesti commune, Vrancea district (Romania); ac- cidental find (1964); contains 8 items: 3 coulters of Henning's class El, 1 hook, 1 ingot, 2 plowshares of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IVB4, one asymmetrical), 1 stirrup of Bartoskova's class IAa (or Iotov's class 3 A), and 1 uni- dentified object; Paragina - Constantinescu 1980. 8. Car Asen, near Silistra (Bulgaria); found in the early medieval hillfort; contains 3 items: axe of Bartoskova's class IIAa (fragmentary), mattock of Henning's class K 10, plowshare of Krasnov's class IB4; Atanasov 2000. 185, 206; 187, pi. 1: 35; 192, pi. 6: 36; 196, pi. 10: 37. 9. Cebovce, Vefky Krtis district (Slovakia); acciden- tal find; contains 1 coulter of Henning's class El, 1 axe-shaped ingot, 1 mattock of Henning's class K10, 2 plowshares of Henning's class Al (Krasnov's class IB1). 1 scythe of Henning's class 15, and 4 sickles of Henning's class H2; Tocik 1983. 10. Chelopech, nearZlatica, Sofia district (Bulgaria); ac- cidental find; contains 16 items: 1 axe (fragmentary), 1 lyre-shaped buckle, 1 chisel, 1 coulter of Henning's class El, 1 bucket handle, 1 key, 2 chains, 2 scraping tools of Henning's class P2, 1 sickle of Henning's class H2, 1 socketed share, 1 lance head of Iotov's class 2, 1 spike, 1 spur of Iotov's class 4B, and 18 coins struck for Emperor JohnTzimiskes (969-976); Mutafchev 1914. 11. Curcani, Calarasj district (Romania); accidental find (1960); contains 11 items: 1 barbed arrow head, 1 fan- shaped axe of Iotov's class 5 A, 1 hilt guard (?), 1 iron ring. 1 mattock of Henning's class K23,1 knife, 1 scraping tool of Henning's class P2, 2 scythes of Henning's class 15, 1 socketed share, and tongs; Com§a - Deculescu, 1972. 12. Dalgopol, Varna district (Bulgaria); accidental find (1958); contains 54 items, all deposited in a large jar: 1 axe of Bartoskova's class IIIB, 4 chisels, 7 coulters of Henning's class El, 2 bucket handles with 6 hoops, 1 hook, 4 L-shaped keys, 1 lance head of Iotov's class 3, 4 mattocks (2 of Henning's class K10,2 of Henning's class K15), 9 plowshares of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IVB4,2 of which are asymmetrical), 1 pruning knife of Henning's class G4a, 4 scythes (2 of Henning's class 14,2 of Henning's class 15), 2 scraping tools of Henning's 327 Florin Curta class PI, 2 tanged snares, and 6 sickles of Henning's class H2; Zlatarski 1960. 13. Devic, near Brod (Macedonia); accidental find; con- tains 4 items: 1 coulter of Henning's class E3, 1 mattock of Henning's class K9, and 2 plowshares of Henning's class Al (orKrasnov's class IVB4); Lilcic 1996, 75. 14. Dolishte, Varna district (Bulgaria); accidental find; contains 14 items: 1 chisel, 2 pickaxes of Henning's class LI, 2 plowshares of Henning's class Al (one of Krasnov's class IB2, one of Krasnov's class IB3), 2 scraping tools (1 of Henning's class P2, 1 of Henning's class P3), 6 sickles of Henning's class H4, and 1 stirrup of Iotov's class 8A; Kouzov 2000. 15. Dragosloveni, Vrancea district (Romania); acci- dental find (1963); contains 60 items: 2 anvils, 2 axes of Bartoskova's class IIAb (Iotov's class IB), axe with asymmetrical blade of Iotov's class 2C, fan-shaped axe of Iotov's class 3C, 2 spearhead-shaped axes, 1 horse bit with straight cheek-pieces, 1 coulter of Henning's class El, 1 coulter of Henning's class E3, 2 hammers, 9 bucket handles, 4 mattocks (3 of Henning's class K10, 1 of Henning's class Kll), 1 iron ring, 7 plowshares of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IVB1, all asym- metrical), 1 pruning knife of Henning's class G5, 2 scra- ping tools of Henning's class P2, 1 scythe of Henning's class 15, 5 sickles of Henning's class H2, 3 tanged shares, 1 lance head of Iotov's class 3, 2 stirrups of Bartoskova's class IAb (or Iotov's class 3 A), 7 tongs, 1 whetstone, and 1 wimble; Com§a - Constantinescu 1969. 16. Fonyod, Somogyi district (Hungary); accidental find; contains 4 items: 1 harpoon (?), 2 mattocks of Henning's class K10, and 1 plowshare of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IB2); Muller 1978. 17. Gajary I, Bratislava district (Slovakia); found within the early medieval hillfort; contains 26 items: 21 bronze belt mounts, 1 bronze brooch and 4 sickles (2 of Henning's class HI, and 2 of Henning's class H2); Bartoskova 1986, 11. 18. Gajary II, Bratislava district (Slovakia); found within the early medieval hillfort, not far from Gajary I; contains 36 items: 1 axe of Bartoskova's class IIAb (or Iotov's class IB), 1 horse bit with S-shaped cheek-pieces, 2 coulters of Henning's class El, 3 bucket handles with 20 hoops, 1 L-shaped key, 1 lance head of Iotov's class 3, 1 mattock of Henning's class K10, 3 iron pans, 2 scissors, 5 scythes of Henning's class 15, 10 sickles of Henning's class H2, 3 flint steels, 3 stirrups (1 of Bartoskova's class IAa [or Iotov's class 3A], 1 of Bartoskova's class IIA, and 1 of Bartoskova's class IIB); Bartoskova 1986, 13-15. 19. Gajary III, Bratislava district (Slovakia); found on the territory of the early medieval hillfort; contains 13 items: 2 axes (1 of Bartoskova's class IlICa, 1 of Bartoskova's class IVAa), 1 bucket handle, 2 knives, 1 mattock of Henning's class K10, 1 iron pan, 2 plows- hares of Henning's class Al (orKrasnov's class IVB1, 1 asymmetrical), 1 single-edged sax, scissors, 1 scythe of Henning's class 15, and 1 sickle of Henning's class H6; Bartoskova 1986, 16-18. 20. Garbovat Ghidigeni commune, Galati district (Roma- nia); contains 19 items: 2 cattle bells of Henning's class Q4, 1 file, 1 hammer, 1 lozenge-shaped arrow head, 2 knives, 1 lance head of Iotov's class 3,2 pruning knives (1 of Henning's class Gib, 1 of Henning's class G5), 1 scy- the (fragmentary), 1 socketed share, 1 sickle of Henning's class H2, and 5 unidentified artifacts; Teodor 2004. 21. Gilow, near Dzierzoniow, Lower Silesia (Poland); found near the inner side of the rampart of the early me- dieval hillfort; contains 3 items: 1 chisel, 1 iron pan (frag- mentary), 1 plowshare of Henning's class A4 (Krasnov's class IA1); Jaworski 2005, 361, 362, fig. 2. 22. Glufishevo, near Samuilovo, Sliven district (Bulgaria); accidental find; contains 13 items: 1 bridle bit of Iotov's class 2, 1 wool comb, 1 lance head of Iotov's class 2, 1 ogribka, 1 pickaxe of Henning's class LI, 2 planes, 4 plowshares (1 of Henning's class A3 [or Krasnov's class IB2], 3 of Henning's class Bl), 1 iron ring, and 1 scraping tool of Henning's class P3; Gerasimov 1955. 23. Gorna Vrabcha, near Elov dol, Pernik district (Bulga- ria); found within the territory of a medieval hillfort; con- tains 6 items: 1 bronze kettle, 1 plowshare of Henning's class B4,1 plane, 1 pruning knife of Henning's class Gib, 1 scythe of Henning's class 16, and 1 double-edged sword; Gerasimov 1955. 24. Ivanovice, near Vyskov, South Moravia (Czech Re- public); accidental find: contains 14 items: 4 axes (1 of Bartoskova's class IIAa [or Iotov's class IA], 1 of Bartoskova's class IIIAa, 1 of Bartoskova's class IVAa, 1 of Bartoskova's class IVAb), 2 chisels, 1 iron pan, 2 plowshares of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IB3, 1 asymmetrical), 2 plowshares of Henning's class A4 (one of Krasnov's class IA2, the other of his class IA3), 1 iron ring, and 2 stirrups of Bartoskova's class IIA; Bartoskova 1986, 20. 25. Jelica, Cacak district (Serbia); found during excavati- ons in a late antique hilltop site; contains 24 items in a bag tightened with a bone mount: 1 battle axe of Bartoskova's class IIAa (or Iotov's class 1 A), 1 chain, 1 cramp, 4 mat- tocks (2 of Henning's class K10, 2 of Henning's class K15), 1 plane, 2 pruning knives (1 of Henning's class Gla, 1 of Henning's class Gib), 1 iron ring, scissors, 1 scythe (fragmentary), 1 sickle of Henning's class H5, 1 scraping tool of Henning's class P3,1 spike, and unidenti- fied artifacts; Milinkovic 2001, 102,103, fig. 27: 1, 3-11; 104, fig. 28: 2-14. 26. Kholopy Gorodok, near Novgorod (Russia); found during excavations inside the hillfort on the bank of the river Volkhov; consists of 12 items: 1 axe of Bartoskova's class IIAa (or Iotov's class 1 A), 1 horse bit with S-shaped cheek-pieces, 1 knife, 1 plane, 2 plowshares of Henning's class A4 (1 of Krasnov's class IA1, 1 of Krasnov's class IA3), 1 scraping tool of Henning's class P2, 2 scythes of Henning's class 15, 1 socketed share, 1 whetstone, and 1 unidentified artifact; Petrov 1997. 27. Kirzhemany, Atyashevo district, Mordovia (Rus- sia); accidental find; contains 32 items: 1 adze, 3 axes of Bartoskova's class IIAd, 1 belt buckle, 1 horse bit with straight cheek-pieces, 3 chisels, 3 coulters of Henning's class El, 1 knife, 3 plowshares of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IVB4, 2 asymmetrical), 4 iron rings, and 12 sickles (9 of Henning's class H2 and 3 of Henning's class H6); Cirkin 1969. 28. Krakow-Kurdwanow (Poland); accidental find; contains 14 whole items: 1 adze, 4 anvils, 4 axes (1 of 328 New Remarks on Early Medieval Hoards of Iron Implements and Weapons Bartoskova's class IIAd, 3 of Bartoskova's class IIB), 1 mandril, 2 unidentified artifacts and 65 fragments of uni- dentified artifacts; Poleski - Rodak 2001. 29. Krumvif, near Kyjov, South Moravia (Czech Repu- blic); accidental find; contains 2 items: 1 iron pan and 1 bronze strap end; Bartoskova 1986, 20, 22. 30. Kuty I, Senec district (Slovakia); found within the ear- ly medieval hillfort; contains 5 items: 1 iron pan, 3 sickles of Henning's class H2, and 1 stirrup of Bartoskova's class IB (or Iotov's class 3A); Bartoskova 1986, 22. 31. Kuty II, Senec district (Slovakia); found within the early medieval hillfort; contains 6 items: 2 L-shaped keys, 1 plowshare of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IB4), 1 scraping tool of Henning's class P2, 1 scythe of Henning's class 15, and 1 sickle of Henning's class H2; Bartoskova 1986, 22. 32. Kuty III, Senec district (Slovakia); found within the early medieval hillfort; contains 5 items: 2 axes of Bartoskova's class IA, 1 plowshare of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IVB4, asymmetrical), scissors, and 1 scraping tool of Henning's class P2; Bartoskova 1986, 22. 33. Lety u Dobfichovic, near Prague, Central Bohemia (Czech Republic); accidental find; contains 25 items: 2 axes (1 of Bartoskova's class IHCb, 1 of Bartoskova's class IIIAc [or Iotov's class 9]), 2 bronze buckets, 1 chisel, 1 cramp, 2 bucket handles with 2 mounts, 1 hook, 1 knife, 2 bronze pans, 1 plowshare of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IVB3, asymmetrical), 2 iron rings, scissors, 1 scraping tool of Henning's class P2, 1 scythe of Henning's class 15, and 3 sickles of Henning's class H2; Bartoskova 1986, 23-24. 34. Lipnik, near Pferov, Northern Moravia (Czech Re- public); accidental find; contains 19 items: 1 axe of Bartoskova's class IIIAa, 1 chisel, 6 knives, scissors, 1 single-edged sax, 1 scythe of Henning's class 16, 4 sick- les of Henning's class H2, 1 double-edged sword, and 2 unidentified artifacts; Bartoskova 1986, 24-25. 35. Maiaki, Slovians'ke district, Donets'k region (Ukrai- ne); found next to the early medieval hillfort; contains 7 items: 4 axes (1 of Bartoskova's class IIAa [or Iotov's class 7C], 1 of Bartoskova's class IIAb [or Iotov's class 1A], 1 of Iotov's class 4A, and 1 of Iotov's class 8B), 1 horse bit of Iotov's class 2, 1 mattock of Henning's class Kll, and 1 plowshare of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IB2); Mikheev 1968. 36. Mikulcice I, near Hodonin, South Moravia (Czech Republic); found inside church no. 8, contains 87 items: 12 axes (3 of Bartoskova's class IIAb [or Iotov's class 1A], 3 of Bartoskova's class IVAa, 2 of Bartoskova's class IVAb, 1 of Bartoskova's class IVAc, 1 of Bartoskova's class IVB, 1 of Bartoskova's class IVCa, and 1 of Bartoskova's class IVCb), 3 horse bits (2 with straight cheek-pieces, 1 with S-shaped cheek-pieces), 2 chisels, 1 chain, 2 coulters of Henning's class El, 30 axe-shaped ingots, 1 L-shaped key, 1 mattock of Henning's class K10, 2 pickaxes of Henning's class LI, 1 plane, 2 plows- hares of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IB4), 2 quern stones, 2 iron rings, 7 scraping tools of Henning's class P2, 4 scythes of Henning's class 15, 8 sickles of Henning's class H2, 1 stirrup of Bartoskova's class IIB, and 1 wimble; Bartoskova 1986, 26-27. 37. Mikulcice II, near Hodonin, South Moravia (Czech Republic); found within the early medieval hillfort; con- tains 24 items: 10 arrow heads (including four barbed arrow heads), 1 belt buckle, 1 chisel, 1 hammer, 3 knives (fragmentary), 11 fragments of iron plate, 2 bone pla- tes, 1 scraping tool of Henning's type P2, 3 scythes of Henning's class 15, and 1 sickle of Henning's class H2 (fragmentary); Bartoskova 1986, 31-33. 38. Mohacs, Baranya district (Hungary); accidental find; contains 6 items: 2 axes (one of Bartoskova's class IIAb or Iotov's class IB), 1 bucket handle, 1 harpoon, 2 plowshares of Henning's class Al (one of Krasnov's class IB4, asymmetrical, the other of Krasnov's class IVB4), 1 scraping tool of Henning's class P2, 3 sickles of Henning's class H2, 1 scythe of Henning's class 15, 1 spike, and 1 roast spit; Kiss 1963. 39. Montana (Bulgaria); found in a ceramic container within the late antique hillfort; contains 4 items: 1 lyre- shaped belt buckle, 1 B-shaped flint steel, 1 knife, and 1 unidentified artifact ("ogribka")16; Aleksandrov 1987, 79, fig. 37. 40. Moravsky Jan, Senec district (Slovakia); accidental find on the bank of the river Morava; contains 39 items: 2 axes (1 of Bartoskova's class IIAd, 1 of Bartoskova's class IIIAa), 1 jingling bell, 4 horse bits (2 with straight cheek-pieces), 1 iron bucket, 2 hammers, 1 hook, 1 L- shaped key, 1 lance head of Iotov's class 3, 1 mirror, 1 plowshare of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IB4, asymmetrical), 3 pruning knives of Henning's class G2b, 3 iron rings, 2 scraping tools of Henning's class P2, 1 tanged share, 2 spade irons of Henning's class Dl, 1 stir- rup of Bartoskova's class IB (or Iotov's class 3 A), 11 strap ends, 1 wimble, a Roman coin, and 1 unidentified artifact; Eisner 1941. 41. Mutenice, near Hodonin, South Moravia (Czech Re- public); accidental find; contains 6 items: 5 axes (3 of Bartoskova's class IIA [or Iotov's class 1A], 1 axe of Bartoskova's class IIIAb, 1 axe of Bartoskova's class IVAc), and 1 axe-shaped bar; Bartoskova 1986, 36. 42. Nartski Novaki, near Dugoselo (Croatia); accidental find, on the bank of the river Sava; contains 12 items; 6 axes (1 "Frankish" axe [francisca], 2 of Bartoskova's class IA, 2 of Bartoskova's class IIAb [or Iotov's class 7C], and 1 fan-shaped of Iotov's class 3C), 1 knife, 1 lance head of Iotov's class 4A, 1 scraping tool of Henning's class P2, 2 spikes, and 1 unidentified artifact (fragment of metal sheet doubly folded); Simoni 1982. 43. Nizhne Borki, Temnikovskii district, Mordovia (Rus- sia); accidental find; contains 17 items: 5 arrow heads, 1 adze, 1 chain, 1 plane, 4 plowshares of Henning's class A5 (2 of Krasnov's class IA4,2 of Krasnov's class IIIB2), 1 socketed share, 1 sickle of Henning's class H2, and 1 wimble; Cirkin 1971. 44. ObrejhX Tamboiesti commune, Vrancea district (Ro- mania); accidental find; contains 12 items: 1 belt buckle, 2 plowshares of Henning's class Al (1 asymmetrical), 16 Ogribka is a generic term employed by Bulgarian archaeologists to refer to a ladle- or trowel-like tool of unknown function, but which, on the basis of ethnographic parallels, it is sometimes believed to have been used for cleaning the kneading trough. 329 Florin Curta 1 pruning knife of Henning's class G4b, 3 sickles of Henning's class H2, 2 scythes of Henning's class 15, 1 sickle of Henning's class HI, 1 tanged share, and 1 uni- dentified artifact; personal communication Florentin-Li- viu Cristea (Ramnicu Sarat). 45. Okorsh, near Dulovo, Silistra district (Bulgaria); found within the early medieval hillfort (1997); con- tains 11 items: 2 axes (1 of Bartoskova's class IIAa [Iotov's class 1A], 1 of Iotov's class 2C), 3 coulters (1 of Henning's class El, 2 of Henning's class E2), 2 mattocks (1 of Henning's class K 10, 1 of Henning's class K15), 2 ogribki, 1 plowshare of Krasnov's class IB2, 1 unidenti- fied artifact; Atanasov 2000,185,206; 188, pi. 2: 24; 189, pi. 3: 25-27; 192, pi. 6: 28-29; 195, pi. 9: 30; 196, pi. 10: 31; 197, pi. 11: 32; 198, pi. 12:33-34. 46. Oslavany, nearRosice, South Moravia (Czech Repu- blic); accidental find; contains 8 items: 1 bucket handle, 1 file, 2 scythes of Henning's class 15, and 4 sickles of Henning's class H2; Bartoskova 1986, 37. 47. Pliska I, Shumen district (Bulgaria); accidentally found within the Outer Town; contains 14 items: 1 axe with asymmetrical blade of Iotov's class 2C, 2 coulters (1 of Henning's class E2, 1 of Henning's class E3), 2 mattocks (1 of Henning's class K4, 1 of Henning's class K8), 4 plowshares (3 of Henning's class A 1 [Krasnov's class IB2], 1 of Henning's class B3), 1 pruning knife of Henning's class G2a, 2 iron rings, 1 sickle of Henning's class H2,1 scraping tool of Henning's class P2; Antonova 1983. 48. Pliska II, Shumen district (Bulgaria); found in 1990 on the northern side of the courtyard in a manor within the northwestern part of the Outer Town; contains 12 items: 2 coulters of Henning's class El, 3 mattocks (1 of Henning's class K4, 1 of Henning's class K9, 1 of Henning's class K10), 3 plowshares of Henning's class Al (1 of Krasnov's class IB4, 2 of Krasnov's class IB2), 1 scraping tool of Henning's class PI, 2 sickles (1 of Henning's class H2, 1 of Henning's class H6), a chain, and a lance head of Iotov's class 2; Vitlianov 2007. 49. Plopu, Prahova district (Romania); accidental find; contains 23 items: 1 axe of Bartoskova's class IIIAc, 10 wagon fittings, bronze kettle, and 11 anonymous folles struck for eleventh-century emperors (the latest for Mi- chael VII, 1071-1078); Ionita - Ciuperca 2003. 50. Pluzna, nearMladaBoleslav, Central Bohemia (Czech Republic); accidental find; contains 4 items: 2 axes (1 of Bartoskova's class IIAc, 1 of Bartoskova's class IIC), 1 horse bit with straight cheek-pieces, and 1 lance head of Iotov's class IB; Profantova 1997. 51. Pobedim, Trencin district (Slovakia); found in the southern rampart of the early medieval stronghold; con- tains 27 items: 1 belt buckle, 1 horse bit with straight cheek-pieces, 1 coulter of Henning's class El, 18 axe- shaped ingots, 1 sickle of Henning's class H2, and 5 spurs of Iotov's class 4; Bartoskova 1986, 38-40. 52. Pohansko, near Bfeclav, Southern Moravia (Czech Republic); found in ceramic container by the oven of a sunken-floored building next to the hillfort rampart; con- tains 11 whole items: 1 belt buckle, 1 chisel, 1 hammer, 2 keys (fragmentary), a knife (fragmentary), 2 iron mounts, 1 iron ring, 2 scraping tools of Henning's class P2, and 12 fragments of unidentified objects; Dostal 1977-1978, 107-111, fig. 4, pi. 8, 9. 53. Poprusanovo, Silistra district (Bulgaria); accidental find near the late antique and early medieval hillfort, on the left bank of the Taban creek; contains 16 items: 2 axes (1 fragment of a specimen of Bartoskova's class IIAa, 1 axe with asymmetrical blade of Iotov's class 2C), chisel, coulter of Henning's class El, 2 lance heads of Iotov's class 4, ogribka, 5 scraping tools (1 of Henning's class PI, 4 of Henning's class P2), scythe of Henning's class 15 (fragmentary), spade iron of Henning's class Dl, and 2 wimbles; Atanasov 2000, 185, 207; 189, pi. 3: 74; 190, pi. 4: 76, 83; 195, pi. 9: 81; 196, pi. 10: 82; 197, pi. 11: 75, 86; 198, pi. 12: 77-80, 85-89. 54. Prachov, near Jicin, Eastern Bohemia (Czech Repu- blic); found in the rampart of the early medieval hillfort; contains 4 items: 1 iron pan and 3 stirrups of Bartoskova's class IAb (or Iotov's class 3C); Bartoskova 1986, 49. 55. Preslav I, Shumen district (Bulgaria); accidental find; contains 10 items: 1 axe with asymmetrical blade of Iotov's class 2C, 2 L-shaped keys, 1 pruning knife of Henning's class G5, 1 scythe of Henning's class 15, and 5 sickles of Henning's class H2; Dzhingov 1966, 52-53. 56. Preslav II, Shumen district (Bulgaria); found near the northern gate of the medieval fortification; contains 20 items: 2 fishing hooks, 4 knives, 1 ogribka, 7 pruning knives of Henning's class G5, and 6 sickles of Henning's class H4; Vitlianov 1978. 57. Preslav III, Shumen district (Bulgaria); accidental find; contains 8 items: 4 coulters of Henning's class El, 2 plows- hare of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IB2), and 2 spade irons of Henning's class Dl; Vitlianov 1988. 58. Pfitluky, near Bfeclav, South Moravia (Czech Re- public); accidental find; contains 4 items: 1 axe of Bartoskova's class IIIAa (or Iotov's class 6), 2 mattocks (1 of Henning's class K10, 1 of Henning's class Kll), 1 plowshare of Henning's class A3 (or Krasnov's class IB2); Bartoskova 1986, 49-50. 59. Radovanu, Calara§i district (Romania); accidental find; contains 6 items: 1 anvil, 1 barbed arrow head, 3 axes (1 of Bartoskova's class IIAb [or Iotov's class 1A], 1 axe with asymmetrical blade of Iotov's class 2C, and 1 spear-shaped), and 1 coulter of Henning's class E3; Com§a - Gheannopoulos 1969. 60. Rajhrad I, near Brno, South Moravia (Czech Repu- blic); accidental find; contains 5 items: 1 plowshare of Henning's class Al and 4 sickles of Henning's class H4; Bartoskova 1986, 50. 61. Rajhrad II, near Brno, South Moravia (Czech Republic); found on the territory of the early medieval stronghold; contains 10 items: 3 scythes of Henning's class 15 and 7 sickles of Henning's class H2; Bartoskova 1986, 50. 62. Rastoaca, Milcovul commune, Vrancea district (Romania); accidental find; contains 6 items; 2 axes (1 of Bartoskova's class IIAb [or Iotov's class 1A], 1 of Bartoskova's class IIB), 3 coulters (2 of Henning's class El, and 1 of Henning's class E2), and 1 scraping tool of Henning's class PI; Paragina 1979. 63. Razlog, Blagoevgrad district (Bulgaria); accidental find; contains 5 items: 1 plowshare of Henning's class Al and 4 sickles of Henning's class H4; Karkelev 1971. 330 New Remarks on Early Medieval Hoards of Iron Implements and Weapons 64. Ruino I, Silistra district (Bulgaria); found within the early medieval hillfort (2000); contains 7 items: 2 hilt guards, plowshare of Krasnov's class IB4, pruning knife of Henning's class G4, scraping tool of Henning's class P2, and tongs; Atanasov 2000, 185, 206; 187, pi. 1: 38; 193, pi. 7: 39; 197, pi. 11: 42; 198, pi. 12: 40-44. 65. Ruino II, Silistra district (Bulgaria); accidental find; contains 22 items: adze, 3 axes (1 of Bartoskova's class IIAa [or Iotov's class IB], 2 of Iotov's class 2C), chisel, coulter of Henning's class El, hammer, 8 mattocks (3 of Henning's class K10, 3 of Henning's class K15, 2 of Henning's class K23), plowshare of Krasnov's class IB2,3 scraping tools (one of Henning's class PI, 2 of Henning's class P2), scythe of Henning's class 15 (fragmentary), 6 sickles of Henning's class H2, 2 spade irons of Henning's class D1, and 1 wimble; Atanasov 2000,185,206-207; 188, pi. 2: 45; 189, pi. 3: 46; 190, pi. 4: 56, 57; 191, pi. 5; 192, pi. 6: 48, 53, 54; 193, pi. 7: 55, 58, 59; 194, pi. 8: 61-66; 195, pi. 9: 67, 68; 196, pi. 10: 69; 197, pi. 11: 70-73. 66. Sebenje, Bled district (Slovenia); accidental find; contains 24 items (5.976 kg): 1 horse bit with straight cheek-pieces, 1 chisel, 2 bucket handles, 1 hook, 1 kni- fe, 1 plowshare of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IVB1), 3 iron rings, 4 socketed shares, 2 sickles of Henning's class H2, 2 lance heads (1 of Iotov's class 1A, 1 of Iotov's class 2), 2 stirrups of Bartoskova's class IAa (or Iotov's class 4), 2 wimbles, and 1 unidentified artifact; Pleterski 1987. 67. Semice, near Nymburk, Central Bohemia (Czech Republic); accidental find; contains 11 items: 2 axes (1 of Bartoskova's class IIAa [or Iotov's class 1A] and 1 of Bartoskova's class IlICa), 1 horse bit with S-shaped cheek-pieces, 1 knife, 1 lance head of Iotov's class 3, 1 plowshare of Henning's class A4 (or Krasnov's class IIB2), 2 scythes of Henning's class 15, 1 scraping tool of Henning's class P2, and 2 sickles of Henning's class H2; Beranova 1972. 68. §ieu, Bistrita-Nasaud district (Romania); accidental find; contains 10 items: 3 axes of Bartoskova's class IIB, 4 coulters (2 of Henning's class El, 2 of Henning's class E2), 1 knife , and 2 plowshares of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IVB4); Danila 1972. 69. Sklabina, Martin district (Slovakia); accidental find; contains 8 items: 2 axes of Bartoskova's class IIAa (or Iotov's class 1A), 1 chisel, 1 coulter of Henning's class El, 1 lance head of Iotov's class 4, 1 mattock of Henning's class K10, 1 plowshare of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IB4), and 1 socketed share; Hrubec 1965,415-417, fig. 3,4. 70. Smolnice, near Louny, Northern Bohemia (Czech Republic); accidental find; contains 4 items; 1 coulter of Henning's class El, 2 plowshares (1 of Henning's class A3 [or Krasnov's class IB2], and 1 of Henning's class Al [or Krasnov's class IB1]), and 1 wimble; Beranova 1968. 71. Sredishte I, Silistra district (Bulgaria); found within the early medieval hillfort; contains 5 items: 2 coulters (1 of Henning's class El, 1 of Henning's class E2), 1 mattock of Henning's class K10, and 2 plowshares (1 of Krasnov's class IB2, 1 of Krasnov's class IB4); Atanasov 2000, 184, 205; 187, pi. 1: 2; 188, pi. 2: 1; 189, pi. 3: 3, 4; 192, pi. 6: 5. 72. Sredishte II, Silistra district (Bulgaria); found within the early medieval hillfort; contains 18 items: 3 axes of Bartoskova's class IIAa (2 of Iotov's class 1A, one of Iotov's class 7C), 2 axes with asymmetrical bla- de of Iotov's class 2C, hammer, lance head of Iotov's class 4, mattock of Henning's class K 15, 2 plowshares (1 of Krasnov's class IB2, 1 of Krasnov's class IB4), pruning knife of Henning's class G5, 2 scraping tools of Henning's class P2, 2 sickles (1 of Henning's class H2, 1 of Henning's class H4), and 3 spade irons of Henning's class Dl; Atanasov 2000, 184, 205; 188, pi. 2: 6, 7; 190, pi. 4: 8-10; 193, pi. 7: 11-13; 194, pi. 8: 14, 15; 195, pi. 9: 17, 18; 196, pi. 10: 20-22; 198, pi. 12: 16, 23. 73. Stambolovo, near Mikhalci, Ruse district (Bulgaria); accidental find; contains 39 items, all in a ceramic pot: 3 axes of Bartoskova's class IIAb (or Iotov's class 1 A), 2 cramps, 4 L-shaped keys, 1 bucket mount, 1 plane, 4 plowshares of Henning's class Al (2 of Krasnov's class IVB3, one of which is asymmetrical, and 2 others of Krasnov's class IVB4), 2 plowshares of Henning's class B2, 1 pruning knife of Henning's class G5, 1 iron ring, 1 socketed share, 11 scythes of Henning's class 15, 8 sickles (2 of Henning's class H2, 6 of Henning's class H4), 1 sword (fragmentary), and 1 unidentified artifact (conical object); Stanchev 1985. 74. Stara Zagora (Bulgaria); found within the late antique fortified site; contains 14 items: 1 fan-shaped battle axe of Iotov's class 3C, 1 chisel, 1 double-tined drag-hoe of Henning's class K3, 1 lock, 1 mattock of Henning's class K7, 1 pickaxe, 1 pruning knife of Henning's type Gla, 2 scythes of Henning's class 12,2 sickles of Henning's class H2, 1 spade iron of Henning's class Dl, and 1 wimble; Nikolov, Kalchev 1986, 60-61, 56, fig. 17. 75. Stare Mesto, nearUherskeHradiste, Southern Moravia (Czech Republic); found in a pit within the early medieval hillfort; contains 18 items: 2 bucket handles, 14 axe-shaped ingots, and 2 quern stones; Bartoskova 1986, 53-54. 76. Stare Zamky, nearBrno-Liseri, South Moravia (Czech Republic); found in a pit inside the early medieval hill- fort; contains 23 items: 4 bucket handles, 1 L-shaped key, 4 knives, 1 plane, shackles, 3 sickles (2 of Henning's class HI, 1 of Henning's class H2), 1 bone skate, 4 quern stones, and 2 unidentified artifacts; Staria 1961. 77. Strezhevo, Bitola district (Macedonia); found during excavations of a late antique basilica; contains 31 items: 3 horse bits with straight cheek-pieces, 1 chisel, 1 cross, 1 hammer, 1 mattock of Henning's class K5, 2 L-shaped keys, 1 ogribka, 1 plane, 1 five-tined drag-hoe, 1 sickle of Henning's class H5, 15 stirrups (1 of Iotov's class 1A, 14 of Iotov's class 5A), and 2 wimbles; Janakievski 1980, 101-110, pi. 1-7. 78. Svepravice, near Prague, Central Bohemia (Czech Repu- blic); accidental find; contains 5 items: 1 bronze earring with twisted end, 2 knives, 1 plowshare of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IB4), and 1 saw; Bartoskova 1986, 57. 79. Szepes Puszta, in Debrecen (Hungary); accidental find; contains 8 items: 1 axe of Bartoskova's class IIAa (Iotov's class 1A), 3 coulters of Henning's class El, 3 plowshares of Henning's class Al (Krasnov's class IB2), 1 scythe of Henning's class 15; Ecsedi 1931. 331 Florin Curta 80. Tinje, in Loka pri Zusmu, near Smarje pri Jelsah (Slovenia); found during excavations within the late an- tique hilltop site; contains 17 items: 2 anvils, 1 chain, 1 chisel, 1 file, 1 mattock of Henning's class Kll, 4 perfo- rated mounts, 1 pickaxe of Henning's class L2, 1 plows- hare of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IVB4), 3 iron rings, scissors, 1 scythe of Henning's class 15, and 1 whetstone; Ciglenecki 2000, 31-32, 56-57; 32, fig. 42; pi. 3, 4, 8: 1. 81. Trepcza I, Sanok commune, near Krosno, Little Po- land (Poland); found during a metal detector survey to the south from the early medieval hillfort at Fajka; con- tains 11 items: 2 axes (1 of Bartoskova's class IIAd, 1 of Bartoskova's class IVAb), 1 iron pan, 2 scissors (frag- mentary), 1 scraping tool of Henning's class P2, 1 scythe (fragmentary), and 4 unidentified artifacts; Ginalski 1997, 221-229, fig. 1,2, 4-8. 82. Trepcza II, Sanok commune, near Krosno, Little Po- land (Poland); found during a metal detector survey to the south from the early medieval hillfort at Fajka; contains 2 items: 1 plowshare of Henning's class A4 (or Krasnov's class IA1) and 1 coulter of Henning's class El; Ginalski 1997, 233,234, fig. 9. 83. Troianov most I, nearKladovo (Serbia); found within the late antique hillfort; contains 6 items: 1 belt buckle, 1 censer, 1 scythe (fragmentary), 2 sickles of Henning's class H2,1 stirrup of Bartoskova's class IAc (or Iotov's class 6); Garasanin-Vasic 1987, 94, 101-102, fig. 12-14. 84. Troianov most II, near Kladovo (Serbia); found in a pit within the late antique hillfort; contains 7 items: 1 bronze jug, 2 axes (1 of Bartoskova's class IIIAb, 1 of Bartoskova's class IIIAc), 1 chisel, 1 hammer, 1 plows- hare of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IB1), and 1 scraping tool of Henning's class P2; Marjanovic-Vujovic 1988, 157, 158, fig. 6,7. 85. TvaroznaLhota, nearHodonin, South Moravia (Czech Republic); accidental find; contains 7 items: 1 mattock of Henning's class K10, 1 iron ring, 1 scythe of Henning's class 15,3 sickles (1 of Henning's class HI, 1 of Henning's class H2, 1 of Henning's class H6), and 1 spur of Iotov's class 3B; Bartoskova 1986, 57. 86. Verkhnyia Vizhnytsia, Mukachiv district, Zakarpats'ka region (Ukraine); accidental find; contains 3 items: 2 scy- thes of Henning's class 15 and 1 double-edged sword; Pe- niak 1980, 121, 125. 87. Vrsac I, Vojvodina (Serbia); accidental find; con- tains 11 items: 5 axes (2 of Bartoskova's class IIAb [or Iotov's class 1A], 2 of Bartoskova's class IIB, and 1 of Bartoskova's class IIIAb), 1 mattock of Henning's class K10, 4 plowshares of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IB4), and 1 sickle of Henning's class H2; Baracki 1960. 88. Vrsac II, Vojvodina (Serbia); accidental find; con- tains 21 items: 3 axes (1 of Bartoskova's class IVAb, 1 of Bartoskova's class IIIB, 1 of Iotov's class 8B), 1 chisels, 3 hammers, 1 knife, 1 mattock of Henning's class K5, 1 pickaxe, 1 plowshare of Henning's class A2 (or Krasnov's class IIB2), 1 scraping tool of Henning's class P2, 1 scy- the, 1 horseshoe, 4 sickles of Henning's class H2,1 spade iron of Henning's class Dl, 1 stirrup of Iotov's class 8A, tongs, and 1 wimble; Baracki 1960. 89. Vrsac III, Vojvodina (Serbia); accidental find; con- tains 6 items: 2 ingots, 1 plane, 2 tanged shares, 1 sickle of Henning's class H2, and 1 unidentified artifact (iron plate); Baracki 1960. 90. Vrsatecke Podhradie, Povazska Bystrica district (Slovakia); accidental find; contains 20 items: 3 anvils, 3 axes (1 of Bartoskova's class IIAb [or Iotov's class 1A], 1 of Bartoskova's class IIB, and 1 of Bartoskova's class IVAb), 1 axe-shaped bar, 1 chisel, 1 coulter of Henning's class E2, 2 mattocks (1 of Henning's class K9, 1 of Henning's class K10), 2 planes, 1 plowshare of Henning's class A4 (or Krasnov's class IB1), 1 scythe of Henning's class 15, 4 tongs, and 1 unidentified artifact; Bartoskova 1986, 58-60. 91. Zabokreky I, Topol'cany district (Slovakia); found on the territory of the early medieval settlement; contains 14 items: 1 iron bucket, 1 coulter of Henning's class El, 6 axe-shaped ingots, 1 plowshare of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IB2), 2 scythes of Henning's class 15, and 3 sickles of Henning's class H2; Bartoskova 1986, 60-61. 92. Zabokreky II, Topol'cany district (Slovakia); found in a silo within the early medieval settlement, together with a skeleton; contains 40 items: 1 axe of Bartoskova's class IIIA, 2 chisels, 2 coulters of Henning's class El, 1 bucket handle, 10 axe-shaped ingots, 1 L-shaped key, 1 mattock of Henning's class K10, 1 plane, 4 plowshares (2 of Henning's class Al [or Krasnov's class IB4], 2 of Henning's class A4 [or Krasnov's class IB1]), 1 iron ring, 2 scraping tools of Henning's class P2, 4 scythes of Henning's class 15, 9 sickles of Henning's class H2, and 1 wimble; Bartoskova 1986, 61-62. 93. Zadiel, Kosice district (Slovakia); accidental find; contains 3 items: 2 coulters of Henning's class El and 1 plowshare of Henning's class Al (or Krasnov's class IVB1, asymmetrical); Bartoskova 1986, 60. 94. Zidani gaber, near Mihovo, district of Sentjernej (Slovenia); contains 10 items: 1 axe of Bartoskova's class IIB, 1 ingot, 1 pruning knife of Henning's class Gib, 1 scythe of Henning's class 15,5 sickles of Henning's class H2, and 1 spike; Bitenc, Knific 2001, 49. 95. ZitavskaTon, Komarno district (Slovakia); accidental find; contains 9 items: 4 axes (1 of Bartoskova's class IIB, 1 of Bartoskova's class IIAc, 1 of Bartoskova's clas- ses IHC-IVCa, 1 of Bartoskova's class IHCb, and 1 of Bartoskova's class IVCa), 2 coulters of Henning's class El, 1 scythe of Henning's class 15, and 1 unidentified artifact; Bartoskova 1986, 64. 96. Zlatar, near Dragoevo, Shumen district (Bulgaria); found within the early medieval settlement; contains 6 items: 1 mattock of Henning's class Kll, 1 pruning knife of Henning's class G3b, 1 socketed share, 2 tanged shares, and 1 sickle of Henning's class H4; Totev 1966. 332